Introduction

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Magnesium is one of those minerals that does hundreds of things in your body but rarely gets the attention it deserves until something goes wrong. It is a cofactor in over 600 enzymatic reactions, including protein synthesis, muscle and nerve function, blood glucose control, blood pressure regulation, and energy production (PMID: 25540137). Your brain alone depends on magnesium for synaptic plasticity, neurotransmitter release, and protection against excitotoxic damage.

And yet, an estimated 50 percent of Americans do not get enough magnesium from their diet (PMID: 22364157). Globally, roughly 2.4 billion people fail to meet recommended intake levels. The modern diet, with its emphasis on processed foods and declining soil mineral content, has made subclinical magnesium deficiency what researchers have called “a principal driver of cardiovascular disease and a public health crisis” (PMID: 29387426).

So supplementing with magnesium is a smart move for most people. But walk into a supplement store or scroll through Amazon, and you will find magnesium sold in over a dozen different forms: oxide, citrate, glycinate, threonate, taurate, malate, orotate, chloride, and more. Each form has different absorption characteristics, different strengths, and different price tags.

The two forms generating the most debate right now are magnesium L-threonate and magnesium glycinate. Threonate has exploded in popularity thanks to endorsements from neuroscientists, podcasters, and biohackers who tout its brain-boosting properties. Glycinate has long been the go-to recommendation from integrative medicine practitioners for sleep, anxiety, and overall magnesium repletion.

This guide breaks down the science behind both forms across every dimension that matters: how they work, what the clinical evidence actually shows, dosing, side effects, drug interactions, cost, and which is right for your specific situation. Every major claim is backed by peer-reviewed research with PubMed citations where available.

By the end, you will know exactly which form to buy and why.

Watch Our Video Review

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Why Magnesium Matters: A Quick Primer

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Before we compare these two forms, it helps to understand why magnesium deficiency causes so many problems and why the form you take actually matters.

The Scope of Magnesium’s Work

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Magnesium is the fourth most abundant mineral in the human body and the second most abundant intracellular cation after potassium. Approximately 60 percent of your body’s magnesium is stored in bone, 39 percent in soft tissue (including muscle), and only about 1 percent circulates in your blood (PMID: 25540137). This distribution is critical to understand because it means standard blood tests miss most magnesium deficiency. Your serum magnesium level can look completely normal while your cells are starving for magnesium.

Here is a partial list of what magnesium does:

• Energy production: Magnesium is required for ATP synthesis and function. Every molecule of ATP must be bound to a magnesium ion to be biologically active
• Nervous system: Magnesium regulates neurotransmitter release, acts as a natural NMDA receptor blocker (preventing excitotoxic nerve damage), and modulates the HPA stress axis
• Muscle function: Magnesium enables muscle relaxation by counteracting calcium’s role in muscle contraction. Deficiency leads to cramps, spasms, and restless legs
• Heart rhythm: Magnesium stabilizes cardiac electrical activity and is used clinically to treat certain arrhythmias
• Blood sugar regulation: Magnesium is essential for insulin signaling and glucose uptake into cells
• Bone health: About 60 percent of your magnesium resides in bone, contributing to bone mineral density
• Sleep: Magnesium activates the parasympathetic nervous system, helps regulate melatonin production, and binds to GABA receptors to promote relaxation
• DNA and protein synthesis: Required for nucleic acid stability and ribosomal function

When you understand the breadth of magnesium’s involvement, it becomes clear why deficiency produces such a wide array of symptoms, and why choosing the right supplemental form matters.

The Blood-Brain Barrier Problem

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Here is the issue that makes the threonate-versus-glycinate debate particularly interesting. Your brain is protected by the blood-brain barrier (BBB), a highly selective membrane that controls which substances can enter brain tissue from the bloodstream. Many magnesium supplements raise serum magnesium levels effectively but do not significantly increase magnesium concentrations inside the brain.

This matters because brain magnesium is critical for synaptic plasticity (the basis of learning and memory), protection against excitotoxicity (a key factor in neurodegeneration), and regulation of sleep architecture. If your goal is specifically to boost brain magnesium, not all forms are created equal, and this is where magnesium threonate enters the picture.

What Is Magnesium L-Threonate?

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Magnesium L-threonate (MgT) is a relatively new form of magnesium that consists of magnesium bound to L-threonic acid, a metabolite of vitamin C. It was developed by neuroscientists at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) and is sold under the patented brand name Magtein.

The Origin Story

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In 2010, a team led by Guosong Liu published a landmark study in the prestigious journal Neuron demonstrating that magnesium L-threonate could significantly elevate brain magnesium levels in rats, something other magnesium forms tested in the same study failed to do. The treated rats showed enhanced synaptic plasticity, increased synaptic density in the hippocampus, and significant improvements in both short-term and long-term memory (PMID: 20152124).

This was a watershed moment. For the first time, researchers had a magnesium compound that could reliably cross the blood-brain barrier and produce measurable cognitive improvements. The L-threonate component appears to play a critical functional role, as it is transported across the BBB via glucose transporters (GLUTs), essentially hitching a ride on the brain’s glucose uptake machinery to ferry magnesium into neural tissue (PMID: 27178134).

How Magnesium Threonate Works in the Brain

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Once inside the brain, magnesium L-threonate exerts its effects through several interconnected mechanisms:

1. NMDA Receptor Modulation

Magnesium naturally blocks NMDA receptors at resting membrane potential, acting as a voltage-dependent gatekeeper. When a neuron is sufficiently depolarized (activated by a meaningful signal), the magnesium block is released, and calcium flows through the NMDA receptor to trigger synaptic strengthening. This mechanism is the foundation of long-term potentiation (LTP), the cellular basis of learning and memory.

When brain magnesium levels are low, NMDA receptors become “leaky,” allowing calcium influx in response to background noise rather than meaningful signals. This creates two problems: reduced signal-to-noise ratio in neural processing (brain fog, difficulty concentrating) and potential excitotoxic damage from chronic low-level calcium overload. Raising brain magnesium restores proper NMDA gating, improving both cognitive function and neuroprotection.

2. Increased Synaptic Density

The original MIT study found that magnesium L-threonate supplementation increased the density of functional synapses in the hippocampus, the brain region most critical for memory formation. Specifically, it increased both pre-synaptic release probability and the number of functional synaptic connections, effectively giving the brain more hardware to work with (PMID: 20152124).

A follow-up mechanistic study confirmed that L-threonate specifically, not just magnesium in general, mediates this synaptic density increase through modulation of intraneuronal magnesium concentration (PMID: 27178134).

3. BDNF Upregulation

Brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) is sometimes called “Miracle-Gro for the brain.” It supports the survival of existing neurons, encourages the growth of new neurons and synapses, and is essential for learning, memory, and mood regulation. Low BDNF levels are associated with depression, Alzheimer’s disease, and cognitive decline. Preclinical evidence suggests that elevated brain magnesium levels increase BDNF expression, providing a molecular mechanism for the cognitive improvements observed in studies.

4. Neuroinflammation Reduction

Emerging research has shown that magnesium L-threonate reduces neuroinflammation in animal models of Alzheimer’s disease. A 2024 study published in Neural Regeneration Research found that MgT treatment in APP/PS1 Alzheimer’s model mice reduced neuroinflammatory markers and improved cognition partly through modulation of the microbiota-gut-brain axis (PMID: 38488562).

The Clinical Evidence for Magnesium Threonate

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Study 1: Cognitive Function in Healthy Chinese Adults (2022)

A randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial tested a Magtein-based formula in 109 healthy Chinese adults aged 18 to 65. After 30 days of supplementation, the MgT group showed significant improvements in working memory, executive function, and attention compared to placebo, as measured by standard cognitive test batteries (PMID: 36558392).

Study 2: Sleep Quality and Daytime Functioning (2024)

A randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial studied 80 adults aged 35 to 55 with self-reported sleep problems. Participants took 1,000 mg of magnesium L-threonate daily for 21 days. The MgT group showed statistically significant improvements in deep sleep, light sleep, and REM sleep scores, as well as improved daytime alertness, mood, and overall sleep quality compared to placebo (PMID: 39252819).

Study 3: Cognitive Performance and Sleep (2025)

A 2025 randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial published in Frontiers in Nutrition further confirmed that Magtein supplementation improved both cognitive performance and sleep quality in adults, extending the findings of the 2024 sleep study with additional cognitive measures.

Study 4: Older Adults with Cognitive Complaints (2016)

A small randomized controlled trial involving 44 adults aged 50 to 70 with subjective cognitive complaints found that 12 weeks of magnesium L-threonate supplementation was associated with improvements in executive function and working memory, with the MgT group showing cognitive test performance equivalent to people 9.4 years younger (NCT02210286). This study had limitations including small sample size and industry funding, but the results were encouraging.

Study 5: Alzheimer’s Disease Models (2024)

In preclinical work, MgT treatment in Alzheimer’s model mice reduced amyloid-beta pathology, decreased tau hyperphosphorylation, repaired intestinal barrier dysfunction, and improved cognitive behavior (PMID: 38488562). A separate 2019 study showed MgT attenuated motor deficits and dopamine neuron loss in a Parkinson’s disease mouse model (PMID: 31788013).

Elemental Magnesium Content

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By weight, magnesium L-threonate is only about 7.2 percent elemental magnesium. This is remarkably low compared to other forms. A standard daily dose of 2,000 mg of magnesium L-threonate provides only about 144 mg of elemental magnesium, which is well below the Recommended Dietary Allowance of 310 to 420 mg for adults.

This low elemental content is both a strength and a limitation. It means threonate is not an efficient way to correct a whole-body magnesium deficiency, but the unique brain-penetrating mechanism compensates by delivering magnesium precisely where other forms cannot.

What Is Magnesium Glycinate?

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Magnesium glycinate, also called magnesium bisglycinate, is magnesium chelated (bonded) to two molecules of the amino acid glycine. This chelation creates a highly stable, highly bioavailable compound that has become the most widely recommended magnesium form among integrative medicine practitioners.

Why Glycine Matters

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The glycine component is not merely a passive carrier. Glycine is itself an inhibitory neurotransmitter with significant biological activity:

Glycine as a Neurotransmitter

Glycine acts on glycine receptors, which are ligand-gated chloride channels. When glycine binds to these receptors, chloride ions flow into the neuron, hyperpolarizing the cell and making it less likely to fire. This produces a calming, inhibitory effect on the nervous system (PMID: 16490218). Glycine receptors are particularly abundant in the brainstem and spinal cord, where they help regulate motor function, pain processing, and autonomic nervous system activity.

Glycine and NMDA Receptors

Interestingly, glycine also acts as a co-agonist at NMDA receptors. NMDA receptors require both glutamate and glycine (or D-serine) to be activated. This means glycine plays a dual role: calming the nervous system through its own inhibitory receptors while simultaneously participating in glutamate-mediated synaptic plasticity. This dual action helps explain why magnesium glycinate users often report both relaxation and improved mental clarity.

Glycine and Sleep

Research has shown that glycine supplementation (3 grams before bed) improves subjective sleep quality and reduces daytime sleepiness. The mechanism involves glycine’s ability to lower core body temperature by promoting peripheral vasodilation, a critical signal that initiates sleep onset. Glycine also promotes slow-wave (deep) sleep through its inhibitory actions in the suprachiasmatic nucleus, the brain’s master circadian clock (PMID: 25533534).

When you take magnesium glycinate, you are getting the combined calming effects of both magnesium and glycine, which is why this form is particularly effective for sleep and anxiety.

Bioavailability Advantages

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Magnesium glycinate’s chelated structure provides several absorption advantages:

• Protection from phytates and other dietary chelators: Because the magnesium is already bonded to glycine, it does not bind to phytic acid, oxalates, or other compounds in your gut that can block magnesium absorption from food or inorganic supplements
• Absorbed through amino acid transport pathways: The glycine chelate allows magnesium glycinate to be absorbed through peptide and amino acid transporters in the small intestine, in addition to the standard magnesium ion channels. This essentially gives it two routes of entry
• Minimal osmotic laxative effect: Inorganic magnesium forms (oxide, chloride, sulfate) pull water into the intestinal lumen through osmotic effects, causing diarrhea at relatively low doses. Glycinate’s chelated structure largely avoids this problem, making it the most GI-friendly magnesium form available

A systematic review of magnesium bioavailability studies found that organic magnesium salts, including glycinate, demonstrate higher absorption and better tolerability than inorganic forms like oxide (PMID: 31715629). Head-to-head comparisons show that magnesium bisglycinate increases serum magnesium levels comparably to magnesium citrate but with significantly fewer GI side effects.

Elemental Magnesium Content

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Magnesium glycinate contains approximately 14.1 percent elemental magnesium by weight, which is roughly double that of threonate but still lower than forms like magnesium oxide (60 percent). However, the higher absorption rate more than compensates for the lower percentage. A standard supplement dose of 2,000 to 2,800 mg of magnesium glycinate delivers 200 to 400 mg of elemental magnesium, which is within the recommended daily range.

The Clinical Evidence for Magnesium Glycinate

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General Magnesium Supplementation

Magnesium glycinate benefits from the enormous body of research on magnesium supplementation generally. Because it is one of the most bioavailable forms, studies using magnesium glycinate (or bisglycinate) contribute directly to the evidence base.

Sleep Quality (2025)

A 2025 randomized, placebo-controlled trial specifically examined magnesium bisglycinate supplementation in healthy adults reporting poor sleep. The study found improvements in self-reported sleep quality measures, adding to the evidence that this form specifically, not just magnesium in general, supports healthy sleep.

Anxiety and Stress (2024)

A 2024 systematic review published in Cureus examined magnesium supplementation for self-reported anxiety and found that supplementation, including glycinate forms, was associated with reduced anxiety symptoms across multiple studies (PMC: 11136869). The calming effect is attributed to both magnesium’s GABA-enhancing activity and glycine’s own inhibitory neurotransmitter effects.

Magnesium Deficiency Correction

Multiple studies have demonstrated that magnesium glycinate effectively raises intracellular magnesium levels with consistent dosing over 4 to 12 weeks. Its high bioavailability makes it one of the most efficient forms for correcting subclinical deficiency.

Muscle Cramps and Restless Legs

While the evidence for magnesium supplementation reducing muscle cramps is mixed overall, clinical experience strongly supports its use, and magnesium glycinate is the most commonly recommended form due to its superior absorption and tolerability. The glycine component may provide additional benefit through its role in collagen synthesis and muscle tissue repair.

Cardiovascular Support

Magnesium supplementation has been associated with modest but significant reductions in blood pressure, particularly in people with existing hypertension. A meta-analysis found that magnesium supplementation reduced systolic blood pressure by approximately 2 mmHg and diastolic by 1.78 mmHg (PMID: 27402922). Magnesium glycinate, with its high absorption and minimal side effects, is an excellent form for this purpose.

For a deeper comparison of magnesium glycinate with other popular forms, see our guide to Magnesium Glycinate vs Magnesium Citrate.

Head-to-Head Comparison

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Clues Your Body Tells You: Signs Magnesium Threonate Is Working

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When you start supplementing with magnesium L-threonate, the changes tend to be more cognitive and neurological in nature than physical. Here is what to watch for, organized by timeline.

Week 1

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Subtle shift in sleep architecture. Many people notice a change in their sleep quality within the first few days, even before cognitive effects become apparent. The 2024 clinical trial showed significant sleep improvements in just 21 days, but anecdotally, users often report feeling like they are sleeping “deeper” within the first week. You may wake feeling more refreshed, or you may notice more vivid dreaming, a possible sign of increased REM sleep.

Mild drowsiness or headache (temporary). Some users experience a brief adjustment period with mild headaches or sleepiness, particularly in the first few days. This is typically transient and resolves as your body adapts. If you find the drowsiness bothersome, shift your dose to the evening.

A subtle sense of mental “quiet.” This is difficult to quantify but frequently reported. The background noise of an overactive mind may decrease slightly. This likely reflects improved NMDA receptor gating: with better magnesium levels in the brain, the threshold for neuronal firing increases, reducing the random excitatory chatter.

Weeks 2-4

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Improved working memory. You may notice that you can hold more items in your mental workspace simultaneously. Phone numbers are easier to remember temporarily. You lose your train of thought less often in conversations. This aligns with the clinical trial data showing working memory improvements beginning within 30 days (PMID: 36558392).

Better focus and sustained attention. Tasks that previously required significant willpower to stick with may become slightly easier to sustain. You are not going to feel like you took a stimulant, but you may find that you drift less during demanding cognitive tasks.

Enhanced daytime alertness. If the sleep quality improvements are real (and the clinical data suggests they should be), better sleep translates directly into better daytime function. You may feel sharper in the afternoon slump hours or more mentally resilient under stress.

More fluid recall. Names, words, and facts that were “on the tip of your tongue” may come more easily. The original animal research showed improvements in both short-term and long-term memory, and while human effects are more subtle, many users report this “greasing” of memory retrieval.

Months 1-3

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Cumulative cognitive clarity. The effects of magnesium threonate tend to build over time rather than providing an immediate dramatic effect. By the 8 to 12 week mark, the difference from baseline should be more noticeable, especially if you had low brain magnesium to begin with.

Improved stress resilience. Magnesium’s role in regulating the HPA axis means that over time, your cortisol response to stressors may become more appropriate: strong enough to respond to real threats, but quicker to return to baseline. You may notice that situations that used to cause significant anxiety produce a more measured response.

Sustained sleep improvements. The sleep benefits should be well established by this point, with consistent improvements in sleep quality metrics.

Warning Signs to Watch For

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Persistent headaches beyond the first week. Occasional headaches during initial adjustment are normal, but headaches that continue beyond 7 to 10 days are unusual and may indicate the dose is too high for you. Try reducing to 1,000 mg per day.

GI distress. While threonate is generally well tolerated, any persistent nausea, cramping, or diarrhea should prompt a dose reduction or a switch to taking it with food.

No cognitive improvement after 8 to 12 weeks. If you have been consistent with your dosing and notice zero change in cognitive function after 3 months, consider that your brain magnesium levels may have been adequate to begin with, or that cognitive concerns may have causes unrelated to magnesium. Consult a healthcare provider.

Excessive drowsiness. Magnesium threonate can make some people quite sleepy. If daytime drowsiness is interfering with function, take the full dose in the evening rather than splitting it.

Clues Your Body Tells You: Signs Magnesium Glycinate Is Working

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Magnesium glycinate’s effects tend to be more whole-body and more rapidly noticeable than threonate’s, because it is correcting a systemic mineral deficiency rather than targeting one specific tissue.

Week 1

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Muscle tension begins to release. This is often the first and most tangible sign. If you carry tension in your neck, shoulders, jaw (teeth clenching), or calves, you may notice a softening within the first 3 to 5 days. Magnesium enables muscle relaxation by counteracting calcium-mediated contraction, and when you have been deficient, the relief is often palpable.

Reduced muscle cramps and twitches. Eye twitching (myokymia), calf cramps at night, and random muscle fasciculations are classic signs of magnesium deficiency. These often improve or resolve within the first week of glycinate supplementation. This is one of the most reliable “body clues” that the supplement is working and that you were, in fact, deficient.

Improved sleep onset. The combination of magnesium’s GABA-enhancing effects and glycine’s own sedative properties means many people notice it is easier to fall asleep within the first few nights. You may also notice that the “racing mind” that keeps you awake becomes quieter.

Slight calming effect. Some people notice a subtle but real reduction in baseline anxiety within the first few days. This is not a sedative effect but rather a normalization of nervous system tone. If you have been running on a chronically activated sympathetic nervous system (fight-or-flight mode), magnesium glycinate helps shift the balance toward parasympathetic (rest-and-digest) activity.

Weeks 2-4

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Deeper, more restorative sleep. The sleep improvements deepen over the first month. You may find that you wake less often during the night, fall back asleep more easily if you do wake, and feel more genuinely rested in the morning. Glycine’s thermoregulatory effects (lowering core body temperature, a key sleep initiation signal) contribute to this improvement (PMID: 25533534).

Improved bowel regularity without diarrhea. Unlike magnesium oxide or citrate, which often cause loose stools, magnesium glycinate normalizes bowel function gently. If you were constipated (common with magnesium deficiency), things should start moving more regularly without the urgency or cramping that comes with osmotic magnesium forms.

Reduced headache frequency. Magnesium deficiency is a well-documented contributor to both tension headaches and migraines. A meta-analysis found that magnesium supplementation reduces migraine frequency and intensity (PMID: 27910808). If you are prone to headaches, you may notice a gradual reduction in frequency over the first month.

More stable mood. Magnesium is involved in serotonin synthesis and HPA axis regulation. As your levels normalize, mood swings may flatten out, irritability may decrease, and overall emotional resilience may improve. This effect is gradual and cumulative.

Better exercise recovery. Magnesium is essential for muscle protein synthesis, energy production, and electrolyte balance during exercise. Athletes often report reduced soreness and faster recovery once magnesium levels are optimized.

Months 1-3

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Blood pressure improvements (if elevated). Magnesium supplementation has been shown to produce modest but significant reductions in blood pressure over 2 to 3 months (PMID: 27402922). If you monitor your blood pressure at home, you may see a decrease of 2 to 5 points in systolic pressure.

Improved insulin sensitivity. Magnesium is critical for insulin receptor function. Over time, correcting deficiency may improve fasting blood glucose and HbA1c in people with metabolic issues. This effect takes weeks to months to manifest.

Sustained energy levels. Since every ATP molecule requires magnesium to function, correcting deficiency gradually improves cellular energy production across all tissues. You may notice fewer energy crashes, better exercise endurance, and less fatigue.

Measurable improvement in bone density markers. Given that 60 percent of your magnesium is in bone, long-term supplementation supports bone mineral density. This is particularly important for postmenopausal women.

Warning Signs to Watch For

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Diarrhea or very loose stools. While glycinate is the gentlest magnesium form, taking too much can still cause GI distress. Reduce your dose by 50 percent and gradually increase.

Excessive drowsiness. If you feel sedated during the day, your dose may be too high or you may be sensitive to glycine’s calming effects. Try taking the full dose only at bedtime.

No improvement in symptoms after 6 to 8 weeks. If cramps, sleep problems, and tension persist despite consistent supplementation, consider testing your red blood cell (RBC) magnesium level (not just serum magnesium) to verify deficiency, or explore other causes.

Heart palpitations. Paradoxically, both magnesium deficiency and excess can cause palpitations. If supplementation worsens palpitations rather than improving them, stop and consult your doctor.

Dosing: Getting It Right

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How to Dose Magnesium L-Threonate

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Magnesium threonate dosing is relatively straightforward because the patented formula has established standard dosing through its clinical trials.

Standard Protocol

• Daily dose: 1,000 to 2,000 mg of magnesium L-threonate (providing 72 to 144 mg of elemental magnesium)
• Clinical trial dose (cognitive function): 2,000 mg per day (PMID: 36558392)
• Clinical trial dose (sleep): 1,000 mg per day (PMID: 39252819)
• Timing for cognition: Split into two doses, 1,000 mg in the morning and 1,000 mg in the early afternoon
• Timing for sleep: Take 1,000 to 2,000 mg approximately 1 to 2 hours before bed
• With or without food: Can be taken either way; taking with food may reduce the rare GI side effects

Important Considerations

Because magnesium threonate provides only 144 mg of elemental magnesium at the maximum dose, it should not be your sole source of magnesium if you are deficient. The RDA for magnesium is 310 to 320 mg for women and 400 to 420 mg for men. If you are using threonate specifically for brain benefits, consider pairing it with a food-based magnesium strategy or a second magnesium form (like glycinate) for whole-body repletion.

Life Extension Neuro-Mag is the most established magnesium L-threonate product on the market. Each serving of 3 capsules provides 2,000 mg of Magtein (magnesium L-threonate), delivering 144 mg of elemental magnesium. Life Extension uses the patented Magtein ingredient and subjects their products to certificate of analysis testing. A 90-capsule bottle provides a 30-day supply at the full 2,000 mg daily dose.

If you prefer a different brand, look for products that use the patented Magtein ingredient (listed on the label) and provide at least 1,000 mg of magnesium L-threonate per serving. Third-party testing certifications from NSF, USP, or ConsumerLab add an extra layer of quality assurance. Double Wood Supplements and NOW Foods also offer reputable magnesium threonate products.

How to Dose Magnesium Glycinate

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Magnesium glycinate dosing is more flexible because it serves as a general magnesium supplement, and optimal dosing depends on your current magnesium status and your specific goals.

Standard Protocol for General Magnesium Repletion

• Daily dose: 200 to 400 mg of elemental magnesium (from approximately 1,400 to 2,800 mg of magnesium glycinate compound)
• Starting dose: 200 mg elemental magnesium for the first week, then increase to 400 mg if well tolerated
• Timing: Take in the evening, 30 to 60 minutes before bed (leverages both the magnesium and glycine calming effects for sleep)
• With food: Taking with a meal improves absorption and reduces the chance of any GI side effects
• Split or single dose: Can be taken all at once or split into two doses (morning and evening) if the dose is above 300 mg

For Sleep Specifically

• Dose: 200 to 400 mg elemental magnesium
• Timing: 30 to 60 minutes before bed
• Stack suggestion: Magnesium glycinate pairs exceptionally well with other sleep-supporting supplements like apigenin and L-theanine

For Muscle Cramps

• Dose: 300 to 400 mg elemental magnesium
• Timing: Take with dinner or before bed (nighttime cramps are the most common complaint)
• Expect improvement within: 3 to 7 days for most people

For Anxiety and Mood

• Dose: 200 to 400 mg elemental magnesium
• Timing: Split into morning and evening doses for all-day support, or take a single evening dose

Upper Limit Considerations

The NIH Tolerable Upper Intake Level (UL) for supplemental magnesium is 350 mg per day. This limit was primarily established based on the laxative effects of magnesium oxide and citrate. Well-absorbed chelated forms like glycinate are less likely to cause GI issues at this dose level. Many practitioners routinely recommend 400 mg or more of elemental magnesium from glycinate with excellent safety profiles. However, staying at or below 400 mg is prudent unless directed by a healthcare provider.

BioSchwartz offers a popular magnesium glycinate supplement that is well-reviewed for its quality and tolerability. Their product provides a solid dose of chelated magnesium bisglycinate per serving and is third-party tested. It is a strong option for those looking for a reliable daily magnesium glycinate supplement at a reasonable price.

Doctor’s Best High Absorption Magnesium uses the Albion TRAACS chelated magnesium glycinate lysinate, one of the most well-researched chelated magnesium ingredients on the market. Each tablet provides 100 mg of elemental magnesium, allowing you to dial in your dose precisely. At roughly 5 to 8 cents per serving for their 240-tablet bottle, it is one of the best values in the magnesium glycinate market. The Albion chelation process ensures consistent, high-quality mineral-amino acid bonds for optimal absorption.

Side Effects: The Complete Picture

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Magnesium L-Threonate Side Effects

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Clinical trials have reported the following side effects, most of which are mild and transient:

Common (reported in clinical trials):

• Drowsiness and fatigue: This is the most commonly reported side effect. The sleep-promoting properties that are beneficial at night can cause unwanted sleepiness during the day if the dose or timing is not right. Shifting the dose to evening usually resolves this.
• Headache: Some participants in clinical trials reported headaches, typically in the first few days. These usually resolve within a week. If persistent, reduce the dose.
• Sensation of blood flow to the head: An unusual but occasionally reported side effect. Some users describe a “warm” or “full” feeling in the head. This is not dangerous but can be disconcerting. It may be related to the vasodilatory effects of magnesium on cerebral blood vessels.

Uncommon:

• Mild GI discomfort: Nausea, bloating, or loose stools can occur but are less common than with other magnesium forms
• Vivid dreams: Likely related to increased REM sleep duration

Not Reported in Clinical Trials:

• Serious adverse events: No serious adverse events have been reported in any published clinical trial of magnesium L-threonate

Theoretical Concerns:

• Hypermagnesemia risk: While very unlikely at standard doses in healthy individuals, people with impaired kidney function should exercise caution with any magnesium supplement, as the kidneys are the primary route of magnesium excretion
• Limited long-term data: The longest published trial of magnesium L-threonate is 12 weeks. While there is no reason to suspect long-term problems (magnesium and threonic acid are both naturally occurring in the body), we simply do not have multi-year safety data yet

Magnesium Glycinate Side Effects

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Magnesium glycinate has a well-established safety profile and is the most GI-friendly magnesium form:

Common:

• Mild drowsiness: Particularly when taken in the evening. This is usually a feature, not a bug, for people taking it for sleep. Taking it at bedtime makes this a benefit rather than a side effect.

Uncommon:

• Loose stools: Much less common than with magnesium oxide or citrate, but can occur at higher doses (above 400 mg elemental). Dose-dependent and easily managed by reducing the dose.
• Nausea: Rare, usually occurs when taken on an empty stomach. Taking with food resolves this.

Rarely Reported:

• Excessive sedation: Some individuals are particularly sensitive to glycine’s calming effects and may experience significant drowsiness even at standard doses. This is individual variation, not toxicity.

Long-Term Safety:

Magnesium glycinate has been used for decades with an excellent safety record. Long-term magnesium supplementation (all forms) has been studied extensively, and a 2019 comprehensive review found no significant safety concerns with chronic use at recommended doses in healthy individuals (PMID: 31060632).

Drug Interactions and Contraindications

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The following drug interactions apply to both magnesium threonate and magnesium glycinate, since the active mineral is the same once absorbed.

Medications That Require Timing Separation

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These medications interact with magnesium primarily through chelation in the gut, where magnesium binds to the drug and reduces its absorption. The solution is simple: separate the magnesium dose from the medication by at least 2 hours.

• Tetracycline antibiotics (doxycycline, minocycline, tetracycline): Magnesium forms insoluble complexes with tetracyclines, dramatically reducing antibiotic absorption. Take magnesium at least 2 hours before or 4 to 6 hours after tetracyclines.
• Fluoroquinolone antibiotics (ciprofloxacin, levofloxacin, moxifloxacin): Same chelation mechanism as tetracyclines. Separate by at least 2 hours.
• Bisphosphonates (alendronate, risedronate, ibandronate): Magnesium reduces absorption of these osteoporosis medications. Take bisphosphonates first thing in the morning on an empty stomach; take magnesium at a different time of day.
• Levothyroxine (thyroid hormone): Magnesium can reduce thyroid hormone absorption. Separate by at least 4 hours.
• Mycophenolate mofetil (immunosuppressant): Magnesium reduces its absorption. Separate by at least 2 hours.

Medications That Require Monitoring

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These medications have pharmacodynamic interactions with magnesium, meaning they affect the same body systems rather than simply interfering with absorption.

• Calcium channel blockers (amlodipine, nifedipine, verapamil, diltiazem): Magnesium is a natural calcium channel blocker. Combining the two can produce additive blood pressure lowering, potentially causing hypotension, dizziness, or faintness. Monitor blood pressure and discuss with your prescriber.
• Diuretics: Loop diuretics (furosemide) and thiazides (hydrochlorothiazide) increase renal magnesium excretion. Paradoxically, this means people on these medications are more likely to need magnesium supplementation, but the diuretic may offset the supplement’s effect. Monitoring serum magnesium is warranted.
• Potassium-sparing diuretics (spironolactone, amiloride): These reduce renal magnesium loss, so combining them with magnesium supplementation could theoretically lead to elevated magnesium levels. Monitor with your prescriber.
• Diabetes medications (metformin, insulin, sulfonylureas): Magnesium can improve insulin sensitivity, potentially enhancing the glucose-lowering effect of these medications. This is usually beneficial but could theoretically contribute to hypoglycemia. Monitor blood glucose.
• Muscle relaxants and sedatives: Magnesium has muscle-relaxant and sedative properties. Combining with other sedatives (benzodiazepines, Z-drugs, muscle relaxants) may produce additive sedation. This is particularly relevant for magnesium glycinate, given the additional calming effect of glycine.

Absolute Contraindications

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• Severe renal impairment (eGFR below 30): Impaired kidneys cannot excrete excess magnesium effectively, creating a risk of hypermagnesemia. Both forms should be avoided without nephrologist approval.
• Myasthenia gravis: Magnesium can worsen neuromuscular junction transmission in this condition
• Heart block (2nd or 3rd degree without a pacemaker): Magnesium can further slow cardiac conduction

Special Populations

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Older Adults (50+)

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This is a population where both forms can provide significant value, but for different reasons.

Magnesium threonate is particularly relevant for older adults because age-related cognitive decline is partly driven by declining brain magnesium levels, reduced synaptic density, and impaired NMDA receptor function, exactly the mechanisms that threonate addresses. The clinical trial showing cognitive test performance equivalent to people 9.4 years younger is especially compelling for this group (NCT02210286).

Magnesium glycinate serves older adults well because magnesium deficiency prevalence increases with age due to reduced dietary intake, decreased intestinal absorption, increased renal excretion, and medication use (particularly diuretics and proton pump inhibitors). The gentle GI profile is important because older adults are more susceptible to electrolyte imbalances from diarrhea.

Practical recommendation for older adults: Consider using both forms. Magnesium threonate in the morning for cognitive support, magnesium glycinate in the evening for sleep and general magnesium status. Monitor total intake and discuss with your physician.

For other supplements that support cognitive function in aging, see our guide on Lion’s Mane Mushroom Benefits for the Brain.

Women

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Premenstrual and menstrual support: Magnesium glycinate is particularly valuable during the luteal phase (the two weeks before menstruation), when magnesium levels tend to drop and symptoms like cramps, mood changes, bloating, and headaches peak. The glycine component provides additional muscle-relaxing and calming effects.

Pregnancy: Neither form has adequate safety data for pregnancy. The general recommendation is to obtain magnesium from food sources during pregnancy unless a healthcare provider specifically recommends supplementation for a documented deficiency.

Perimenopause and menopause: Both forms may be beneficial. Magnesium glycinate supports sleep (which is commonly disrupted during perimenopause), bone density (critical as estrogen declines), and mood stability. Magnesium threonate may help with the cognitive changes (“brain fog”) that many women experience during the menopausal transition.

Vegetarians and Vegans

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People who eat plant-based diets often have higher dietary magnesium intake (from nuts, seeds, legumes, and whole grains) but may have lower absorption due to the high phytate content of these foods. Magnesium glycinate, which is absorbed through amino acid pathways and is unaffected by phytates, is an excellent choice for this population.

Athletes and Physically Active Individuals

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Magnesium glycinate is the clear winner for athletes because:

• Exercise increases magnesium requirements by 10 to 20 percent due to sweat losses and increased metabolic demand
• Muscle function, recovery, and electrolyte balance all depend on adequate magnesium
• The gentle GI profile is critical for athletes who need to supplement during training and competition without risking GI distress
• Higher elemental magnesium content per dose means more efficient repletion

Magnesium threonate does not provide enough elemental magnesium to address the increased needs of physically active people, though it could still be used as an add-on for cognitive performance in competitive sports.

People with Anxiety or Mood Disorders

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Magnesium glycinate is generally preferred for anxiety and mood support due to the dual mechanism of magnesium plus glycine. Glycine’s direct inhibitory neurotransmitter effects complement magnesium’s GABA-enhancing and HPA-axis-regulating properties.

That said, magnesium threonate may help people whose anxiety is accompanied by significant cognitive symptoms like brain fog, difficulty concentrating, or poor working memory, since these symptoms may partly reflect low brain magnesium.

For a related comparison of supplements targeting mood, see our article on 5-HTP vs L-Tryptophan for Mood.

Cost Comparison: The Math That Matters

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This is where the comparison becomes dramatic.

Magnesium L-Threonate

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Magnesium Glycinate

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Where to Buy Quality Supplements

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Based on the research discussed in this article, here are some high-quality options:

• Vitamin D Supplement
• Vitamin D3 Supplement
• Vitamin C Supplement
• Magnesium Supplement
• Magnesium Glycinate Supplement

The Bottom Line on Cost

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Magnesium glycinate costs roughly $18 to $55 per year at standard dosing with quality products. Magnesium threonate costs roughly $219 to $475 per year. That is a 5 to 25 times price premium.

Over a 5-year supplementation period:

• Glycinate: $90 to $275 total
• Threonate: $1,095 to $2,375 total

The price difference is significant and partly justified. Magnesium threonate is a patented compound with a unique mechanism that no other magnesium form replicates. It costs more to manufacture, and the Magtein licensing fee adds to product costs. But if your primary goal is general magnesium supplementation, sleep improvement, or muscle health, paying 10 times more for threonate makes no financial sense.

The smart money strategy: Use magnesium glycinate as your daily foundation supplement (cheap, effective for everything magnesium does in the body) and add magnesium threonate only if you specifically need cognitive support and have the budget for it.

Common Myths About Magnesium Threonate and Glycinate

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Myth 1: “Magnesium Threonate Is the Only Form That Reaches the Brain”

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This is the most pervasive myth, and it is an oversimplification. All magnesium forms that raise serum magnesium levels will, to some degree, increase brain magnesium, because the brain does have mechanisms to uptake magnesium from the blood. The accurate statement is that magnesium threonate is the only form with published evidence showing it significantly and preferentially increases brain magnesium concentrations compared to other forms. In the original Slutsky et al. study, MgT increased brain magnesium while other forms tested (including magnesium chloride and magnesium citrate) did not produce a significant increase at equivalent doses (PMID: 20152124). However, one mouse study did find that magnesium bisglycinate could increase brain magnesium at very high doses. The evidence strongly favors threonate for brain delivery, but calling it the “only” form that reaches the brain is technically inaccurate.

Myth 2: “Magnesium Glycinate Is Just a Cheap Alternative to Threonate”

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This mischaracterizes the relationship entirely. Magnesium glycinate is not a budget version of threonate; it is a different tool for different jobs. Glycinate excels at correcting whole-body magnesium deficiency, supporting sleep through glycine’s unique mechanisms, relaxing muscles, and supporting cardiovascular health. It does things that threonate cannot do efficiently (like providing adequate elemental magnesium for systemic needs). The two forms are complementary, not competing.

Myth 3: “You Only Need One Form of Magnesium”

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For many people, a single form covers their needs. But for those dealing with both cognitive concerns and systemic magnesium deficiency, using two complementary forms is a perfectly reasonable strategy. This is analogous to how someone might take both vitamin D3 and vitamin K2, two different forms of fat-soluble vitamins that serve different purposes but complement each other.

Myth 4: “Higher Elemental Magnesium Is Always Better”

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If this were true, magnesium oxide (60 percent elemental magnesium) would be the best form. It is not. Absorption, bioavailability, tolerability, and tissue-specific delivery all matter more than raw elemental content. Magnesium oxide has very low bioavailability (roughly 4 percent), meaning your body absorbs only a tiny fraction of that 60 percent. Magnesium threonate’s low elemental content (7.2 percent) is offset by its unique ability to deliver magnesium to the brain. Magnesium glycinate’s moderate elemental content (14.1 percent) is offset by its excellent absorption rate.

Myth 5: “Magnesium Supplements Can Replace Dietary Magnesium”

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Supplements are meant to supplement, not replace. The best dietary sources of magnesium include pumpkin seeds (168 mg per ounce), almonds (80 mg per ounce), spinach (78 mg per half cup cooked), dark chocolate (65 mg per ounce), black beans (60 mg per half cup), and avocado (58 mg per avocado). A magnesium-rich diet plus targeted supplementation is the ideal approach.

Which Should You Choose?

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After evaluating all the published evidence, here is the decision framework:

Choose Magnesium L-Threonate If:

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• Your primary concern is cognitive function. Memory issues, brain fog, difficulty concentrating, age-related cognitive decline, or simply wanting to optimize mental performance. Threonate has the strongest specific evidence for brain benefits.
• You want neuroprotective support. If you have a family history of Alzheimer’s disease or other neurodegenerative conditions, threonate’s documented effects on synaptic density, BDNF, and neuroinflammation make it a compelling choice for long-term brain health maintenance.
• You are over 50 and noticing cognitive changes. The clinical trial showing cognitive performance equivalent to people 9.4 years younger is particularly relevant for this population.
• You are already getting adequate magnesium from diet or another supplement. Threonate’s low elemental magnesium content means it is not a good primary magnesium source. It is best used as a targeted cognitive add-on to an otherwise adequate magnesium intake.
• Budget is not a primary concern. Threonate costs 5 to 25 times more than glycinate. If the price premium is acceptable for the specific cognitive benefits, it may be worth it.

Choose Magnesium Glycinate If:

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• You are magnesium deficient or suspect deficiency. Muscle cramps, sleep problems, anxiety, headaches, fatigue, and restless legs are all classic deficiency symptoms. Glycinate is the most efficient and tolerable way to correct systemic magnesium deficiency.
• Sleep is your primary concern. The combination of magnesium’s relaxing effects with glycine’s temperature-lowering and inhibitory neurotransmitter properties makes glycinate the best single magnesium form for sleep optimization.
• You have anxiety or stress-related symptoms. The dual calming mechanism of magnesium plus glycine makes this form particularly effective for nervous system support.
• You have a sensitive stomach. Glycinate is the most GI-friendly magnesium form, period. If other forms have given you diarrhea or cramping, glycinate is the answer.
• You are an athlete or physically active person. Higher elemental magnesium needs, importance of GI tolerance during training, and muscle recovery support all point to glycinate.
• Budget matters. Glycinate provides excellent value with proven efficacy at a fraction of threonate’s cost.
• You want a single, all-purpose magnesium supplement. If you are going to take only one form, glycinate covers the most bases.

Consider Taking Both If:

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• You have both cognitive concerns and systemic magnesium deficiency. Threonate in the morning for brain support, glycinate in the evening for sleep and general health. This is the comprehensive approach.
• You are over 50 with both cognitive and physical symptoms. Aging increases needs on both fronts, and the complementary mechanisms make a strong case for dual supplementation.
• Budget allows and you want maximum coverage. The two forms target different aspects of magnesium’s vast biological role and complement each other well.

See a Doctor Instead If:

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• You have diagnosed kidney disease (eGFR below 60)
• You are experiencing cardiac arrhythmias or significant heart palpitations
• You have myasthenia gravis or other neuromuscular junction disorders
• You are taking multiple medications that interact with magnesium
• You are pregnant or breastfeeding
• Symptoms suggesting magnesium deficiency are severe or rapidly worsening (severe cramps, numbness, personality changes, seizures)

A Practical Starting Protocol

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If you are new to magnesium supplementation, here is a straightforward, evidence-based protocol:

Option A: General Magnesium Support (Most People)

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Step 1: Start with magnesium glycinate, 200 mg elemental magnesium taken with dinner or 30 to 60 minutes before bed.

Step 2: After 5 to 7 days, if well tolerated, increase to 400 mg elemental magnesium (still at bedtime with food).

Step 3: Assess after 4 weeks. Note changes in sleep quality, muscle tension, cramp frequency, mood, and headaches. Most people notice meaningful improvements within this timeframe.

Step 4: Continue indefinitely at the dose that provides the best balance of benefits and tolerability.

Option B: Brain-Focused Protocol

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Step 1: Start with magnesium L-threonate, 1,000 mg (one dose) taken in the morning with or without food.

Step 2: After 3 to 5 days, if well tolerated (no persistent headache or excessive drowsiness), increase to the full 2,000 mg daily dose split morning and afternoon, or take the full dose in the evening if sleep support is also a goal.

Step 3: Because threonate provides only 144 mg of elemental magnesium, add a dietary magnesium strategy: eat 1 ounce of pumpkin seeds (168 mg) and a serving of dark leafy greens daily to cover your remaining needs. Alternatively, add 200 mg of magnesium glycinate in the evening.

Step 4: Assess cognitive function after 8 to 12 weeks. Keep a brief journal tracking focus, memory, and mental clarity to detect gradual improvements that might otherwise go unnoticed.

Option C: Comprehensive Protocol (Both Forms)

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Morning: 1,000 mg magnesium L-threonate with breakfast (for cognitive support)

Evening: 200 to 400 mg elemental magnesium from glycinate, taken with dinner or before bed (for sleep, relaxation, and systemic magnesium repletion)

Total elemental magnesium: 272 to 544 mg per day (144 from threonate + 200 to 400 from glycinate)

This is the most comprehensive approach and covers both brain-specific and whole-body magnesium needs. Monitor for any GI effects from the total magnesium load, and adjust the glycinate dose down if loose stools develop.

For additional sleep support strategies that complement magnesium supplementation, see our articles on Apigenin for Sleep and Melatonin vs Valerian Root.

Final Verdict

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Magnesium glycinate is the better choice for most people. It provides substantially more elemental magnesium per dose, offers the additional calming benefits of glycine, has excellent GI tolerability, effectively addresses the most common reasons people supplement with magnesium (sleep, muscle function, anxiety, deficiency correction), and costs a fraction of what threonate charges. If you can take only one magnesium supplement, glycinate covers the most ground.

Magnesium threonate wins on brain specificity. It is the only magnesium form with published clinical evidence for directly increasing brain magnesium levels and improving cognitive performance, and its mechanisms of action, including increased synaptic density, improved NMDA receptor gating, and BDNF upregulation, are uniquely compelling for anyone focused on brain health. The MIT-developed Magtein technology is genuinely innovative and addresses a real gap that other magnesium forms do not fill.

The ideal approach depends on your priorities:

• If you had to choose one: Magnesium glycinate. It serves the widest range of needs at the best price.
• If brain health is your primary goal: Magnesium threonate, supplemented with dietary magnesium or glycinate for whole-body needs.
• If budget allows and you want comprehensive coverage: Both forms together, threonate for the brain and glycinate for everything else.

The science on magnesium supplementation is mature and clear: most people are not getting enough, and supplementing with a well-absorbed form produces real, measurable benefits across multiple body systems. Whether you choose threonate, glycinate, or both, you are making a decision that will likely improve your health in ways you can feel within weeks.

Common Questions About Magnesium Threonate

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What are the benefits of magnesium threonate?

Magnesium Threonate has been studied for various potential health benefits. Research suggests it may support several aspects of health and wellness. Individual results can vary. The strength of evidence differs across different claimed benefits. More high-quality research is often needed. Always review the latest scientific literature and consult healthcare professionals about whether magnesium threonate is right for your health goals.

Is magnesium threonate safe?

Magnesium Threonate is generally considered safe for most people when used as directed. However, individual responses can vary. Some people may experience mild side effects. It’s important to talk with a healthcare provider before using magnesium threonate, especially if you have existing health conditions, are pregnant or nursing, or take medications.

How much magnesium threonate should I take?

The appropriate dosage of magnesium threonate can vary based on individual factors, health goals, and the specific product formulation. Research studies have used different amounts. Always start with the lowest effective dose and follow product label instructions. Consult a healthcare provider for personalized dosage recommendations based on your specific needs.

What are the side effects of magnesium threonate?

Most people tolerate magnesium threonate well, but some may experience mild side effects. Common reported effects can include digestive discomfort, headaches, or other minor symptoms. Serious side effects are rare but possible. If you experience any unusual symptoms or reactions, discontinue use and consult a healthcare provider. Always inform your doctor about all supplements you take.

When should I take magnesium threonate?

The optimal timing for taking magnesium threonate can depend on several factors including its absorption characteristics, potential side effects, and your daily routine. Some supplements work best with food, while others are better absorbed on an empty stomach. Follow product-specific guidelines and consider consulting a healthcare provider for personalized timing recommendations.

Can I take magnesium threonate with other supplements?

Magnesium Threonate is a topic of ongoing research in health and nutrition. Current scientific evidence provides some insights, though more studies are often needed. Individual responses can vary significantly. For personalized advice about whether and how to use magnesium threonate, consult with a qualified healthcare provider who can consider your complete health history and current medications.

How long does magnesium threonate take to work?

The time it takes for magnesium threonate to work varies by individual and depends on factors like dosage, consistency of use, and individual metabolism. Some people notice effects within days, while others may need several weeks. Research studies typically evaluate effects over weeks to months. Consistent use as directed is important for best results. Keep a journal to track your response.

Who should not take magnesium threonate?

Magnesium Threonate is a topic of ongoing research in health and nutrition. Current scientific evidence provides some insights, though more studies are often needed. Individual responses can vary significantly. For personalized advice about whether and how to use magnesium threonate, consult with a qualified healthcare provider who can consider your complete health history and current medications.

Frequently Asked Questions

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See the FAQ section in the page metadata for common questions about magnesium threonate vs magnesium glycinate.

Recommended Products

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• Magnesium Glycinate vs Magnesium Citrate: Which Is Better? [Complete Comparison Guide]
• Magnesium L-Threonate for Cognitive Function: Research Review
• Lion’s Mane Mushroom Benefits for the Brain: What Research Shows
• Apigenin for Sleep: The Supplement Andrew Huberman Recommends
• 5-HTP vs L-Tryptophan for Mood: Which Is Better? [Complete Comparison Guide]

References

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1. Slutsky, I., Abumaria, N., Wu, L. J., et al. (2010). Enhancement of learning and memory by elevating brain magnesium. Neuron, 65(2), 165-177. PMID: 20152124. PubMed

2. Sun, Q., Weinger, J. G., Mao, F., & Liu, G. (2016). Regulation of structural and functional synapse density by L-threonate through modulation of intraneuronal magnesium concentration. Neuropharmacology, 108, 426-439. PMID: 27178134. PubMed

3. Zhang, C., Hu, Q., Li, S., et al. (2022). A Magtein, magnesium L-threonate, -based formula improves brain cognitive functions in healthy Chinese adults. Nutrients, 14(24), 5235. PMID: 36558392. PubMed

4. Madani, S., Ahmadi, A., Getta, S., et al. (2024). Magnesium-L-threonate improves sleep quality and daytime functioning in adults with self-reported sleep problems: a randomized controlled trial. Sleep Science and Practice, 8(1), 3. PMID: 39252819. PubMed

5. Wang, X., Li, W., & Zhao, X. (2024). Magnesium-L-threonate treats Alzheimer’s disease by modulating the microbiota-gut-brain axis. Neural Regeneration Research, 19(10), 2281-2289. PMID: 38488562. PubMed

6. Xu, Z. P., Li, L., Bao, J., et al. (2019). Treatment of magnesium-L-threonate elevates the magnesium level in the cerebrospinal fluid and attenuates motor deficits and dopamine neuron loss in a mouse model of Parkinson’s disease. Neuropsychiatric Disease and Treatment, 15, 3143-3153. PMID: 31788013. PubMed

7. de Baaij, J. H., Hoenderop, J. G., & Bindels, R. J. (2015). Magnesium in man: implications for health and disease. Physiological Reviews, 95(1), 1-46. PMID: 25540137. PubMed

8. Rosanoff, A., Weaver, C. M., & Rude, R. K. (2012). Suboptimal magnesium status in the United States: are the health consequences underestimated? Nutrition Reviews, 70(3), 153-164. PMID: 22364157. PubMed

9. DiNicolantonio, J. J., O’Keefe, J. H., & Wilson, W. (2018). Subclinical magnesium deficiency: a principal driver of cardiovascular disease and a public health crisis. Open Heart, 5(1), e000668. PMID: 29387426. PubMed

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11. Kawai, N., Sakai, N., Okuro, M., et al. (2015). The sleep-promoting and hypothermic effects of glycine are mediated by NMDA receptors in the suprachiasmatic nucleus. Neuropsychopharmacology, 40(6), 1405-1416. PMID: 25533534. PubMed

12. Lynch, J. W. (2004). Molecular structure and function of the glycine receptor chloride channel. Physiological Reviews, 84(4), 1051-1095. PMID: 16490218. PubMed

13. Uysal, N., Kizildag, S., Yuce, Z., et al. (2019). Timeline (bioavailability) of magnesium compounds in hours: which magnesium compound works best? Biological Trace Element Research, 187(1), 128-136. PMID: 31679032. PubMed

14. Zhang, X., Li, Y., Del Gobbo, L. C., et al. (2016). Effects of magnesium supplementation on blood pressure: a meta-analysis of randomized double-blind placebo-controlled trials. Hypertension, 68(2), 324-333. PMID: 27402922. PubMed

15. Chiu, H. Y., Yeh, T. H., Huang, Y. C., & Chen, P. Y. (2016). Effects of intravenous and oral magnesium on reducing migraine: a meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. Pain Physician, 19(1), E97-E112. PMID: 27910808. PubMed

16. Schwalfenberg, G. K., & Genuis, S. J. (2017). The importance of magnesium in clinical healthcare. Scientifica, 2017, 4179326. PMID: 29093983. PubMed

17. Pickering, G., Mazur, A., Trousselard, M., et al. (2020). Magnesium status and stress: the vicious circle concept revisited. Nutrients, 12(12), 3672. PMID: 33260549. PubMed